For writing reports

A Guide to Writing a Laboratory Report

Applicable to all PHM2213 and PHM3133-Polymorphism (and PHM3314 Industrial Training - guide to writing only)

When writing a laboratory report, please use the following sequence:

Abstract
Objective
Introduction
Materials & methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References

Title

The title should be less than ten words and should reflect the factual content of the paper. Scientific titles are not designed to catch the reader's fancy. A good title is straightforward and uses keywords that researchers in a particular field will recognize.

Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the report. The purpose of an abstract is to allow the reader to judge whether it would serve his or her purposes to read the entire report. A good abstract is a concise (100 to 200 words) summary of the purpose of the report, the data presented, and the author's major conclusions. Please limit to not more than 200 words.

Objective

Write your objective(s) of the experiment clearly. Be precise.

Introduction

The Introduction should be relevant to the experiment and should include a description of the theories involved. Do not write more than one page.

The introduction defines the subject of the report. It must outline the scientific purpose(s) or objective(s) for the research performed and give the reader sufficient background to understand the rest of the report. Care should be taken to limit the background to whatever is pertinent to the experiment. A good introduction will answer several questions, including the following:

Why was this study performed?Answers to this question may be derived from observations of nature or from the literature.

What knowledge already exists about this subject? The answer to this question must review the literature, showing the historical development of an idea and including the confirmations, conflicts, and gaps in existing knowledge.

What is the specific purpose of the study? The specific hypotheses and experimental design pertinent to investigating the topic should be described.

Materials and Methods (or Experimental Procedure)

In this section, describe the actual procedures employed throughout the experimental work. Types of materials, chemicals, instruments or equipment used must be clearly stated. In some cases, an illustration of the method used is helpful.

The difficulty in writing this section is to provide enough detail for the reader to understand the experiment without overwhelming him or her. When procedures from a lab book or another report are followed exactly, simply cite the work, noting that details can be found in that particular source. However, it is still necessary to describe special pieces of equipment and the general theory used. This can usually be done in a short paragraph, possibly along with a drawing of the experimental apparatus. Generally, this section attempts to answer the following questions:

What materials were used?

How were they used?

Where and when was the work done? (temperature-controlled environment, humidity?.)

Results

The results section should summarize the data from the experiments without discussing their implications.

Results can be descriptive. However, when dealing with data, these should be organized into tables, figures, graphs, photographs, and so on. Data included in a table should not be duplicated in a figure or graph.

All figures and tables should have descriptive titles and should include a legend explaining any symbols, abbreviations, or special methods used. Figures and tables should be numbered separately and should be referred to in the text by number, for example:

Viscosity of the emulsion did not change despite increasing concentration of cellulose as indicated in Table 2..
The particle size decreased after ten minutes of homogenisation (Fig. 1).

Figures and tables should be self-explanatory; that is, the reader should be able to understand them without referring to the text. All columns and rows in tables and axes in figures should be labeled.

This section of your report should concentrate on general trends and differences and not on trivial details.

When drawing a table, the caption should precede the table itself. Number the table in sequence and include a suitable caption.

Example 1:

Table 1 Types of surfactants and their HLB number

Chemical name	EO no.	HLB
Polyoxyethylene lauryl ether	5	9.7
Polyoxyethylene oleyl ether	8	10.0
Polyoxyethylene fatty alcohol ether	5	10.5
Polyoxyethylene nonyl phenyl ether	3	7.8
Polyoxyethylene nonyl phenyl ether	5	9.2
Polyoxyethylene nonyl phenyl ether	6	10.8
Polyoxyethylene nonyl phenyl ether	11	13.7
Polyoxyethylene nonyl phenyl ether	30	15.1

The caption for a figure should be after the figure itself. Number the figure in sequence and include a suitable caption for the figure.

Example 2:

Figure 1 Effect of emulsifier concentration on size of oil droplets: 20% OL with varied concentration of E906; emulsified at 6000 rpm for 10 min. at 30°C.

The identification for a set of photographs/illustration can be placed next to them. However the set of photographs should have a caption e.g. Figure 1 Photographs of zinc oxide particles stabilised by sodium caseinate, magnification 400X (a) immediately after milling (b) after 24 hours storage at 30°C.

All results may have their own units. Check the abbreviated form of the units.

Use the correct number of significant figures.

Use the correct decimal place.

Discussion

Discussion must be based on the findings. Use known theories to explain your observations. Do not write more than two pages.

This section should not just be a restatement of the results but should emphasize interpretation of the data, relating them to existing theory and knowledge. Speculation is appropriate, if it is so identified. Suggestions for the improvement of techniques or experimental design may also be included here. In writing this section, you should explain the logic that allows you to accept or reject your original hypotheses. You should also be able to suggest future experiments that might clarify areas of doubt in your results.

Conclusion

In Conclusion, briefly describe whether the objectives of the experiment are met. Restate the study aims or key questions and summarize your findings using clear, concise statements. Keep this section brief and to the point. Do not write more than half a page.

Acknowledgments (optional)

This is an optional section. Thank people who directly contributed to the paper, by providing data, assisting with some part of the analysis, proofreading, typing, etc. It is not a dedication, so don't thank Mom and Dad for bringing you into the world, or your roommate for making your coffee.

References or Literature Cited

This section lists all articles or books cited in your report. It is not the same as a bibliography, which simply lists references regardless of whether they were cited in the paper. The listing should be alphabetized by the last names of the authors. Different journals require different formats for citing literature.

The format that includes the most information is given in the following examples:

For Articles:
Fox, J.W. (1988). Nest-building behavior of the catbird, Dumetella carolinensis. Journal of Ecology 47: 113-17.

For Books:
Bird, W.Z. (1990). Ecological aspects of fox reproduction. Berlin: Guttenberg Press.

For Chapters in Books:
Smith, C.J. (1989). Basal cell carcinomas. In Histological aspects of cancer, ed. C.D. Wilfred, pp. 278-91. Boston: Medical Press.

For Personal (unpublished) Communications:
Cited in the text only, e.g., "... x is greater than y (Comrie 1999, pers. comm.)."

For Lecture Notes:
Comrie, A.C. (1999): The climate of Tucson. April 1 lecture, GEOG 230 Our Changing Climate, University of Arizona.

For Web Site:
Comrie, A.C. (1999): The climate of Tucson. Internet: <http://geog.arizona.edu/~comrie/tucson.html>.

When citing references in the text, do not use footnotes; instead, refer to articles by the author's name and the date the paper was published. For example:

Fox in 1988 investigated the hormones on the nest-building behavior of catbirds.
Hormones are known to influence the nest-building behavior of catbirds (Fox, 1988).

When citing papers that have two authors, both names must be listed. When three or more authors are involved, the Latin et al. (et alia) meaning "and others" may be used. A paper by Smith, Lynch, Merrill, and Beam published in 1989 would be cited in the text as:

Smith et al. (1989) have shown that...

This short form is for text use only. In the Literature Cited, all names would be listed, usually last name preceding initials.

There are a number of style manuals that provide detailed directions for writing scientific papers.

Appendix (optional)

If necessary, one or more appendices containing raw data, figures not used in the body of the paper, sample calculations, etc. may be included. They are considered as additional material to the report, and may not be examined by the reader at all.

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Some guidelines

Units of measurement should be metric or SI (International System). Extracted without editing from http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/symbol.html (please visit this site as I am only copying the most important stuff on units) with comments in red:
In the International System of Units (SI), the units do not have "abbreviations". They have symbols. The unit symbols do not follow the grammatical rules for abbreviations, because they follow the mathematical rules for symbols instead. These rules include the following.
- A symbol is never followed by a period (unless, of course, it happens to fall at the end of a sentence).
- The letter "s" is never added to a symbol to indicate a plural.
  - In other words, 2 minutes is written 2 min, not 2 min. or 2 mins.
- Symbols are case-sensitive and must be written as they are defined.
  - There is a tradition in the metric system that the first (or only) letter of an unprefixed unit symbol is capitalized if (and only if) the unit's name comes from a proper name. Thus W is the symbol for the watt and A is the symbol for the ampere, because these units are named for scientists.
  - It makes a big difference whether a symbol is capitalized or not, because often the same letter represents different units: t stands for the tonne and T for the tesla, for example.
  - There is one loophole in the rule on capitalization: it's acceptable to use the symbol L instead of l for the liter, since the letter l is so easily confused with the number 1.
  - The case of symbol prefixes is specified, upper and lower, and must not be changed. For example, the symbol for kilo- is k-, so kW and not KW is the symbol for the kilowatt.
- The superscripts ² and ³ are always used for "square" and "cubic", respectively.
  - Thus the square kilometer, for example, is written km², not sq km.
- A raised dot (also called a middle dot or half-high dot) is recommended when symbols are multiplied. It is permissible to use a space instead, but symbols should not be placed next to one another with nothing between them.
  - For example, A·h is the recommended symbol for the ampere hour. A h is also permitted, but not Ah or amp hr.
- The slash (solidus) / is used for "per". Furthermore, only one slash is allowed per symbol.
  - This means the SI unit of acceleration is written m/s² rather than m/s/s, even though it is often spoken "meters per second per second". (Negative exponents can also be used: m/s² can be written m·s^-2.)
- Symbols are separated from the numerical quantity they follow by a space.
  - Thus 5 kilograms is written 5 kg, not 5kg. However, when we opt for align-justify for our paragraph, '1 h' may break into '1' and 'h' appearing in the next line. Edit your work appropriately. Further it is quite common to see the spaces omitted: 20mm, 7g, 8h, 20mg/L. Thus, we adopt so. This may be trivial but we have to discipline ourselves to abide by the convention (Reference?)
Be sure to divide paragraphs correctly and to use starting and ending sentences that indicate the purpose of the paragraph. A report or a section of a report should not be one long paragraph.
Every sentence must have a subject and a verb.
Avoid using the first person, I or we, in writing. Keep your writing impersonal, in the third person. Instead of saying, "We weighed the frogs and put them in a glass jar," write, "The frogs were weighed and put in a glass jar."
Avoid the use of slang.
Be logical and consistent in the use of tense throughout a paragraph. Write in the present tense if it is still going on or in the future tense if so. Do not switch between past and present. The past tense should be used when describing methods and results. The present tense is used in your personal conclusion and when stating accepted facts.

Be sure that pronouns refer to antecedents. For example, in the statement, "Sometimes cecropia caterpillars are in cherry trees but they are hard to find," does "they" refer to caterpillars or trees?
Consistency of Format -Within the report, the exact format of particular items is less important than consistency of application. For example, if you indent paragraphs, be sure to indent them all; use a consistent style of headings throughout (e.g., major headings in bold with initial capitals, minor headings in italics, etc.); write "%" or "percent" but do not mix them, and so on. In other words, establish a template and stick to it. Consult real journal papers for examples.
Abbreviations should be avoided except when using terms common to science. These terms include RNA, DNA, ATP, units of measurement (g, cm) and chemical formulas.

Acronyms should be used only after stating the full scientific name of the substance once. The acronym should be introduced along with the first mention of the full term.

Example: “The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is devoted to saving species endangered by human carelessness.”

Chemical elements are not proper nouns and should not be capitalized. When using the chemical symbol, only the first letter should be capitalized: carbon (C), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca).

Contractions, such as didn’t, can’t and doesn’t, should never be used in formal writing in the sciences.

Footnotes should not be used. Instead, use in-text citations.

Illustrations should clearly depict information to the reader.

Numbers are tricky to report. The general rule is to write out numbers below 10 as words (ex: one) and express numbers above 10 (ex: 10) as numerals.

Incorrect: The fetal pig was eighteen inches in length.

Correct: The fetal pig was 18 inches in length.

Remember that there are exceptions to this rule:

Use Numerals to Express

Values under 10 that are compared to or used in the same sentence with numbers

over 10

Incorrect: There were 23 red-eyed fruit flies and five white-eyed fruit flies.
Correct: There were 23 red-eyed fruit flies and 5 white-eyed fruit flies.

Values preceding a unit of measurement

Incorrect: seven cm, eight grams

Correct: 7 cm, 8 g

Values representing percentages, ratios, fractions and decimals

Incorrect: two percent, three to four, five-sixths, seven hundredths

Correct: 2%, 3:4, 5/6, .07

Values representing the number of participants, date, ages or points on a scale

Incorrect: eight subjects were interviewed, ages six to nine, scored three on a six point scale

Correct: 8 subjects were interviewed, ages 6 to 9, scored 3 on a 6 point scale

Use Words to Express Numbers that begin a sentence.
- Incorrect: 12 fetal pigs were dissected. . .
- Correct: Twelve fetal pigs were dissected. . .
Conflict Between Rules
When there is a conflict between these rules, such as when listing a specific amount (typically

written as a numeral) located at the beginning of the sentence (typically expressed in words),
use this example to guide you.
- Incorrect: 2.00 g of hydrochloric acid was used to determine. . .
- Correct: Hydrochloric acid (2.00 g) was used to determine. . .

Scientific names consisting of genus and species should be underlined or italicized; only the genus should be capitalized. For example, Homo sapiens or Canis familiaris.

Singular and plural forms of some scientific terms are confusing. The following are the correct forms:

Singular/ Plural

hypothesis/ hypotheses

datum/ data

appendix/ appendices

phenomenon/ phenomena

criterion/ criteria

axis/ axes

Make sure that verb tenses agree with these unusual singular and plural forms:

Incorrect: The criterion are. . . ; the axes are. . . ; the data are. . .

Corrrect: The criterion is. . . ; the axis is. . . ; the datum is. . .

Tables and figures are useful for displaying large amounts of quantitative information. They help the reader organize information and internalize it. Be sure that the title of the table or figure clearly describes its contents.

To prevent errors, read and think about what you write. Learn to reread and edit your work.

The above is also applicable to PHM3314 Industrial Training Report.

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Sources:

Thank you very much to the authors and contributors of the following pages. We certainly owe a lot to our American professors when it comes to education. May the Almighty bless us with wisdom too. Amin.

Writing lab reports and scientific papers

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/maderinquiry/writing.html

Scientific report writing in the physics lab

http://www.physics.mq.edu.au/~terry/SRWitPL.htm

How to write a scientific paper

http://www.nmas.org/JAhowto.html

Scientific report writing

http://geog.arizona.edu/~comrie/geog230/report.htm#General%20Points

How to write lab report

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/lab_report_complete.html

A checklist for scientific writing

http://www.uhv.edu/ac/wac/pdf/scichecklist.pdf